Burn Injuries in Child Abuse/WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 1
Management of Burns
The burns patient has the same priorities as all
other trauma patients.
• Assess:
– Airway
– Breathing: beware of inhalation and rapid airway
compromise
– Circulation: fluid replacement
– Disability: compartment syndrome
– Exposure: percentage area of burn.
• Essential management points:
– Stop the burning
– ABCDE
– Determine the percentage area of burn (Rule of 9’s)
– Good IV access and early fluid replacement.
• The severity of the burn is determined by:
– Burned surface area
– Depth of burn
– Other considerations.
• Morbidity and mortality rises with increasing burned surface
area. It also rises with increasing age so that even small
burns may be fatal in elderly people.
Continued next page
WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 2
Burn Management iinn AAdduullttss
• The “Rule of 9’s” is commonly used to estimate the
burned surface area in adults.
• The body is divided into anatomical regions that
represent 9% (or multiples of 9%) of the total body
surface (Figure 7). The outstretched palm and fingers
approximates to 1% of the body surface area.
• If the burned area is small, assess how many times your
hand covers the area.
• Morbidity and mortality rises with increasing burned
surface area. It also rises with increasing age so that
even small burns may be fatal in elderly people.
Continued next page
WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 3
Burn Management iinn CChhiillddrreenn
• The ‘Rule of 9’s’ method is too imprecise for estimating the
burned surface area in children because the infant or young
child’s head and lower extremities represent different
proportions of surface area than in an adult (see Figure 8).
• Burns greater than 15% in an adult, greater than 10% in a child,
or any burn occurring in the very young or elderly are serious.
Continued next page
WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 4
Burn Management (continued)
Depth of burn
• It is important to estimate the depth of the burn to assess its severity
and to plan future wound care. Burns can be divided into three types,
as shown below.
Depth of
burn
Characteristics Cause
First degree
burn
• Erythema
• Pain
• Absence of blisters
• Sunburn
Second degree
(Partial
thickness)
• Red or mottled
• Flash burns
• Contact with hot
liquids
Third degree
(Full Thickness)
• Dark and leathery
• Dry
• Fire
• Electricity or lightning
• Prolonged exposure
to hot liquids/ objects
• It is common to find all three types within the same burn wound and
the depth may change with time, especially if infection occurs. Any
full thickness burn is considered serious.
Serious burn requiring hospitalization – Greater than 15% burns in an adult
– Greater than 10% burns in a child
– Any burn in the very young, the elderly or the infirm
– Any full thickness burn
– Burns of special regions: face, hands, feet, perineum
– Circumferential burns
– Inhalation injury
– Associated trauma or significant pre-burn illness: e.g. diabetes
Continued next page
WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 5
Burn Management (continued)
Wound care
First aid
• If the patient arrives at the health facility without first aid having been given,
drench the burn thoroughly with cool water to prevent further damage and
remove all burned clothing.
• If the burn area is limited, immerse the site in cold water for 30 minutes to
reduce pain and oedema and to minimize tissue damage.
• If the area of the burn is large, after it has been doused with cool water, apply
clean wraps about the burned area (or the whole patient) to prevent systemic
heat loss and hypothermia.
• Hypothermia is a particular risk in young children.
• First 6 hours following injury are critical; transport the patient with severe burns
to a hospital as soon as possible.
Initial treatment
• Initially, burns are sterile. Focus the treatment on speedy healing and
prevention of infection.
• In all cases, administer tetanus prophylaxis.
• Except in very small burns, debride all bullae. Excise adherent necrotic (dead)
tissue initially and debride all necrotic tissue over the first several days.
• After debridement, gently cleanse the burn with 0.25% (2.5 g/litre)
chlorhexidine solution, 0.1% (1 g/litre) cetrimide solution, or another mild waterbased
antiseptic.
• Do not use alcohol-based solutions.
• Gentle scrubbing will remove the loose necrotic tissue. Apply a thin layer of
antibiotic cream (silver sulfadiazine).
• Dress the burn with petroleum gauze and dry gauze thick enough to prevent
seepage to the outer layers. Continued next page
WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 6
Burn Management (continued)
Daily treatment
• Change the dressing daily (twice daily if possible) or as often as necessary to
prevent seepage through the dressing. On each dressing change, remove any
loose tissue.
• Inspect the wounds for discoloration or haemorrhage, which indicate
developing infection.
• Fever is not a useful sign as it may persist until the burn wound is closed.
• Cellulitis in the surrounding tissue is a better indicator of infection.
• Give systemic antibiotics in cases of haemolytic streptococcal wound infection
or septicaemia.
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection often results in septicaemia and death.
Treat with systemic aminoglycosides.
• Administer topical antibiotic chemotherapy daily. Silver nitrate (0.5% aqueous)
is the cheapest, is applied with occlusive dressings but does not penetrate
eschar. It depletes electrolytes and stains the local environment.
• Use silver sulfadiazine (1% miscible ointment) with a single layer dressing. It
has limited eschar penetration and may cause neutropenia.
• Mafenide acetate (11% in a miscible ointment) is used without dressings. It
penetrates eschar but causes acidosis. Alternating these agents is an
appropriate strategy.
• Treat burned hands with special care to preserve function.
− Cover the hands with silver sulfadiazine and place them in loose polythene
gloves or bags secured at the wrist with a crepe bandage;
− Elevate the hands for the first 48 hours, and then start hand exercises;
− At least once a day, remove the gloves, bathe the hands, inspect the burn
and then reapply silver sulfadiazine and the gloves;
− If skin grafting is necessary, consider treatment by a specialist after healthy
granulation tissue appears. Continued next page
WHO/EHT/CPR 2004 reformatted. 2007 WHO Surgical Care at the District Hospital 2003 7
Burn Management (continued)
Healing phase
• The depth of the burn and the surface involved influence the duration of the
healing phase. Without infection, superficial burns heal rapidly.
• Apply split thickness skin grafts to full-thickness burns after wound excision or
the appearance of healthy granulation tissue.
• Plan to provide long term care to the patient.
• Burn scars undergo maturation, at first being red, raised and uncomfortable.
They frequently become hypertrophic and form keloids. They flatten, soften
and fade with time, but the process is unpredictable and can take up to two
years.
• In children
– The scars cannot expand to keep pace with the growth of the child and may
lead to contractures.
– Arrange for early surgical release of contractures before they interfere with
growth.
• Burn scars on the face lead to cosmetic deformity, ectropion and contractures
about the lips. Ectropion can lead to exposure keratitis and blindness and lip
deformity restricts eating and mouth care.
• Consider specialized care for these patients as skin grafting is often not
sufficient to correct facial deformity.
Nutrition
• Patient’s energy and protein requirements will be extremely high due to the
catabolism of trauma, heat loss, infection and demands of tissue regeneration.
If necessary, feed the patient through a nasogastric tube to ensure an
adequate energy intake (up to 6000 kcal a day).
• Anaemia and malnutrition prevent burn wound healing and result in failure of
skin grafts. Eggs and peanut oil and locally available supplements are good.
