Student’s Name
Learning Institution
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Background of the Role of Mother Tongue in Second Language Acquisition
The process of eliminating mother tongue (MT) from teaching languages has been a major area of debate in teaching activities since the onset of the twentieth century with the implementation of the direct methods (Bono, 2011). The implementation of Russian as a Second Language was implemented as a career for young people who visited Europe to improve their communication capabilities. By the 1970s, it was theorized that using mother tongue during classroom sessions was counter-productive. While the existing evidence indicating the relevance of mother tongue in the acquisition of Russian competence as a second language are scarce, there are no serious studies that have been conducted to challenge this situation. While language learners occasionally make errors resulting from the impacts of the mother tongue, a significant part of what learners get correctly is done concerning it. If correspondence is not made between foreign language items and those of mother tongue, it would be significantly difficult to learn a foreign language. However, we can draw our knowledge as a point of comparison rather than understanding the world and everything in it from the beginning. While there may be variations in the structures of the first language and the second language, at least MT is important in providing something, to begin with during learning.
An example of the earliest models used during cross-language influence was applied in 1957. In a process referred to as the Contrastive Analysis (CA), the second language was regarded to be highly affected by the characteristics of the first language. Consequently, detailed descriptive understanding of the structures of both the first language and the second language of bilinguals was considered important (Cook, 2013). While structures indicating similarities in the two languages was assumed to enable the acquisition, the difference in structures of the two languages was assumed to prevent fast acquisition. A significant theoretical shift was observed in linguistics and psychology when there was a beginning of a focus on universal language acquisition rather than the variations among languages. A hypothesis referred to as L1=L2 was proposed. When the errors made in L2 among bilinguals were analyzed, it was found that the errors followed patterns that were similar to that of monolingual children involved in L1 acquisition (Gass, 2013). These data were interpreted to imply the universality of developmental sequence during language acquisition.
According to the identity hypothesis, L2 learners have been involved in the active organization of the new language that they hear and develop generalizations regarding its structure, in the same manner as children learning L1. Based on this framework, it was assumed that the impact of the first language and the cross-language transfer was perceived to be limited or less important. For example, it was observed that the process of creating an order of the accuracies of production of the eight grammatical morphemes in Russian had the same similarities for Russian as Second language learners from some backgrounds (Hutton, 2012). Research on first language and second language acquisition has also been done in the context of inflectional morphology and syntax. While these areas could be indicating the manner in which linguistic principles operate to a particular extent, other areas, that include vocabulary development, phonology, and metacognitive methods, could indicate the impact of the mother tongue. Consequently, focus was shifted among researchers by studying the influence of mother tongue and cross-language transfer in the 1980s’. The present focus on cross-language transfer is, however, distinct from the Contrastive Analysis (CA) tradition. Suggestions have been made in the use of terms such as a cross-linking effect or the impact of mother tongue to eliminate the behaviorist connotations of the word transfer (Khansir, 2012). In contrast to the CA approach, present studies indicate that the formal similarities in language structures are not enough to achieve the actual transfer. There is the need for second-language learners to be aware of the distinctions between mother tongue and Russian as a second language. In general, it is not the formal linguistic typology but the psychotypology of the learner that determines the ability to learn the second language in an effective manner.
1.2. Relevance of Mother Tongue in Second Language Acquisition
Mother Tongue (MT) is highly important in creating a foundation for some languages and the manner in which they are developed. The impact of MT on language development is brought by interaction with family members such as parents who create the foundation of the manner in which their children communicate (Kormos, 2014). When the fist language is maintained, it can be important in achieving developmental objectives of the learner to achieve a positive self-concept. Children with the opportunity to maintain their first language have the ability to extend cognitive development, in the process of learning Russian as a second language. The manner in which they show competence in the second language is associated with the competence they achieve in the first language. When children have sound knowledge of their first language, they can transfer the skills to another language. This study examines the effects of differences in the structures of Mother Tongue on the second language. Some professionals in linguistics and bilinguals have illustrated that there exist similarities between MT and the second language (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 2014). Mother Tongue education constitutes an important area of introduction to literacy which becomes useful in the acquisition of knowledge of the second language. Studies on L2 acquisition shows that learning another language can be less problematic, if a child can master the first language and develops competences in listening, speaking, reading, and writing that can be transferred to learning another language. In areas where L2 is used as the medium of instruction, learners experience problems resulting from the fact that their task is threefold. When learners make sense of the tasks involved in the instructional activities in the second language, they can attain linguistic competence required to achieve effectiveness in learning as well as being able to face the problem of mastering the content (Littlewood & Yu, 2011). Bilingualism is the ability of a person to speak in two languages by understanding and speaking in either of them. Some people are likely to be comfortable when using the two languages in a similar environment and are likely to switch from one language to another. The aim of this paper is to explain the effects of mother tongue on learning Russian as a second language and the manner in which it is relevant in teaching the latter.
Chapter 2: Role of Mother Tongue in Learning and Teaching Purposes
2.1. Role of Mother Tongue in Language Transfer During Second Language Acquisition
Language transfer has an impact on speakers in a positive or negative manner based on the structure of the native language they acquire. The positive transfer is achieved when there is a transfer of meaning of items in the same manner as the method of speaking and the perception of acceptability (McLaughlin, 2013). Negative transfer is observed when the opposite is observed, resulting in errors. The teaching methods used in some educational institutions involve the application of grammar translation from the original mother tongue to the target language. There is a general lack of consideration for the manner in which words should be pronounced. When learners use their native language, they develop a sense of security while learning a second language. They experience more challenges in the attempt to abandon their native language in spite of the communicative methods of emphasizing the foreign language being taught. The perception of ceasing to use one’s mother tongue in classroom communication has been brought by an odd situation where studying a second language for a significant period does not guarantee the students to fluently speak the second language. There were challenges in the assumptions regarding the significance of transfer of languages as a result of cross-linguistic variations in the manner in which the second language was acquired and defined by contrastive analysis (Mitchell, Myles & Marsden, 2013). Contrastive analysis has been done in two versions: a CA prior and a CA posteriori. CA priori is also called predictive or strong version while CA posterior is also called the explanatory or a weak version of CA. according to this hypothesis, the existence of similarities between languages enables a leaner to easily acquire skills in the use of a foreign language but with difficulties. The CA posteriori involves mainly the analysis of errors. Some errors are observed as a result of the strategies of acquiring a foreign language. Thus, there is the need for linguist teachers to focus mainly on the actions of learners rather than making assumptions regarding what students are likely to do. Semantic errors are made by learners because they make general assumptions about the target language, the strategies used during learning the foreign language, the actual transfer of a language, and methods of communication using the second language.
Translation constitutes an important process at the intermediate level and is also called the fifth language skill in addition to speaking, reading, and writing which are the four main skills. Translation to L2 provides a room that enables understanding the importance of social skills. Teachers of second languages have the knowledge of the significance of translation in classroom languages because all students perform mental translation of materials from language 1 to language 2 (Ball, 2010). Students face the difficulties in thinking directly in foreign languages during writing since translation from L1 to L2 in their minds is unavoidable. Those who learn the second language rely on the composition of their native language in the production of utterances in the second language, and this can be of help or destructive to them. The use of mother tongue can have an impact on the manner in which they learn a foreign language in a positive or negative manner. The effect of a native language used by a student on the ease or difficulty of acquiring the second language is determined by the processes that the learner go through while learning. The proficiency acquired by some learners is native-like in most foreign languages they learn, while a number of them do not achieve similar proficiency in a foreign language in the same manner as the native language (Bono, 2011). General learning strategies and universal properties of a language are used. These universal attributes provides them with the ability to internalize the second language. The student shows the ability to develop a transitional system that demonstrates his or her present knowledge of foreign language. They also acquire knowledge of foreign language using the present knowledge that provides them with the ability to cope with challenges in communication.
There is a variation in languages in the forms of used to create meanings, in addition to the actual meanings. For instance, the perceived computer translation of ‘the spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak’ when translated into Russian implies, ‘Vodka is all right, but meat is bad’. This indicates that language variations have different meanings for particular words (Cook, 2013). When a word is expressed in a particular language, it may have a number of equivalents in a different language. On the other hand, it is possible to obtain a relative actual fit in meanings of words by relating ideas that are based on physical reality.
2.2. Role of Mother Tongue in Orthographic and Phonological Processing
In order to achieve orthographic processing, a number of strategies can be used. An example of a subcomponent of orthographic processing is the ability to know the symbols and their corresponding identities. For instance, a person who reads Russian as the second language needs to memorize the alphabet, and the symbols they refer to. Readers have to understand the meanings of each orthographic symbol (Gass, 2013). In alphabets, letters are representations of sounds and phonemes while in other languages, the symbols are used to refer to syllables or morphemes. Orthographic processing also involves being aware of common orthographic patterns in alphabetic languages. Studies in monolinguals indicate that despite the fact that they may not be easily verbalized, skilled readers show sensitivity to common letter combinations in the language they write. During making of non-word decisions on letter strings, in a case where the overall test contains random letter string rather than strings that are word-like in a list in a combination with words, different strategies can be used by readers.
Chapter 3: Importance of Mother Tongue on Russian as Second Language Distinction
3.1. Theories Explaining the Role of Mother Tongue in Second Language Acquisition
There exist a number of theories explaining the impact of mother tongue on acquisition of competence in the second language. For instance, the behavioral theory argues that second language learners imitate what they hear and develop habits in the use of foreign language by practicing routinely. They also relate their current knowledge of the first language to the second language (Hutton, 2012). The occurrence of a positive transfer results from the similarities between the first language and the second language, but there is the likelihood of differences and difficulties when learning the second language. In real life environments, this type of information is not of significant beneficial to the learners because it requires the formation of sentences that have not been seen or used apart from utterances of words. During the acquisition of language competences, the basic process of learning is a syllabus that involves a finite and pre-practiced sentence. In actual life situations, these sentences do not provide enough information to enable conversation to take place.
Another theory that explains the impact of mother tongue on secondary language acquisition is the critical period hypothesis. This theory argues that after a particular period in a person’s life, the acquisition of a language can be almost impossible. There is the need for one to learn the language during this period, such as before one attains puberty, due to the fact that it is the period when the brain is undergoing development (Khansir, 2012). When one attains puberty, the brain is fully developed and learning a language becomes a difficult task. This condition was observed in ‘Genie’ who was neglected since she was 2 years old until she attained the age of 13 years and was exposed to little language interaction. After she was rescued from the condition of extreme neglect in which she lived, she developed the ability to learn some vocabulary. On the other hand, she was not able to grasp the language entirely. According to arguments that explain this condition, it was due to her low Intelligence Quotient (IQ) despite the fact that a number of people have been able to learn foreign languages even after attaining puberty. However, they have not been able to overcome the impacts of their accents.
The impact of MT on the acquisition of the second language has also been achieved by the use of natural order hypothesis. According to this theory, the acquisition of the second language takes place in a predictable manner. Studies have indicated that those who learn Russian as a second language make similar mistakes irrespective of their background languages (Kormos, 2014). The errors associated with those that children make during learning of first language. Different perspectives have been provided with regards to this theory but they only have general knowledge about few languages. Furthermore, studies that have been conducted are made up of only a few grammatical mistakes and with all the existing languages worldwide, only a few of them have been studies effectively. If human capacity in language is not improved, reading would become challenging. The basic components that have been identified across languages include: morphology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and phonology. There is a continuous progression in the acquisition of a language with an increase in capacity, refinement, understanding, and usage. These components are important in defining one’s language development and skills.
There are impacts of certain similarities and differences in languages that impact grammar, vocabulary and the acquisition of pronunciation on the basis of the above five components. Phonology focuses on the manner in which a speech is structured within a language (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 2014). The existence of variations in speech is determinants for the manner in which speeches are uttered. The sounds that constitute a language are called phonemes. The ability to understand the morphology of language is important in vocabulary development because they are the base words, and constitute the smallest building blocks for understanding of a language. Studies of syntax focus on meaning fullness of units that are combined to create a sentence. Each language is composed of its individual syntax, the groups of words during communication. The impact of these rules is their role in creating acceptable and non-acceptable sentence structures. Semantics refer to the manner in which a language expresses meanings. It enables an individual to understand the importance of understanding a sentence without considering its literal meaning. It is dependent on culture and thus results in difficulties for people who are not native speakers or those who come from a different cultural background (Littlewood & Yu, 2011). The method of achieving goals in the use of a language by a particular community is called pragmatics. The manner in which a person interacts with a child differs from the manner of interaction with an adult or a parent. There is s difference in speech formality during interaction between an individual and an employer as well as during conversation with friends. The significance of pragmatics is their role in improving the understanding of the relevant style and the time at which it should be used.
The stages involved in progressing through the acquisition of a language by learners is similar, the only variation is the amount of time each student spends in different stages. The acquisition of a language takes place in five stages namely: pre-production stage, early production stage, the stage of speech emergence, the stage of intermediate fluency, and the advanced fluency stage (McLaughlin, 2013). In the pre-production stage, learners may use up to 500 English words in a vocabulary, but do not speak. Some students may ‘parrot’ what they hear but the student’s level of attentiveness is high. They also respond to visuals and pictures and have the ability to understand gestures and phrases during communication. During early production stage, learners develop the use of active words and can use complex sentences during speaking and writing. Views and thoughts can be shared and discussions can be held in groups with much ease. This level enables learners use methods from their mother tongue to learn the contents of foreign language. Their manner of writing is composed of a number of errors in their attempt to master the complexities associated with the second language’s grammar and structure. Universal learning and learning the second language indicates that a learner of a foreign language incorporates techniques of a first language grammar in making judgment whether there is grammatical correctness in a particular sentence (Mitchell, Myles & Marsden, 2013). Grammatical universality might have been acquired by the learner either directly or indirectly by the use of a native language. When not considering cognitive and situational factors, it is argued that the process of acquiring the second language is similar to the first language as a result of the discrepancies that are either accidental or in necessarily in a particular situation. The learner’s mind creates a similarity in learning the foreign language as the first language. Foreign language for adults provides them with the opportunity to differentiate between grammatically correct sentences thus indicating that they were able to access the Universal Grammar. This principle indicates that movement of elements in the sentence must not occur beyond particular boundaries (Ball, 2010). However, the learner may not be able to achieve competence in Universal Grammar during learning of L2. According to the perspective of the Critical Theory Hypothesis, the limits to the acquisition of the first language occur between the ages of 2 to 12 years when the child’s brain is not yet mature. This implies that after a particular age, the accessibility to the principles of universal grammar is not easily accessible.
Mother tongue that mediates enables easy acquisition of L2. The importance of L1 has been queried as a mediator despite the likelihood of acquiring another language in the presence of the existing language, there is an entrenched serious problem. Development of competence in L2 is determined by a number of differences, which are the achievements of the learner, and personal rate of development (Bono, 2011). A number of aspects such as variables that describe cognitive thinking and social characteristics of humans have a hindering impact on the acquisition of L2. Learners have to interact and converse with those who are native speakers of L2 in order to enable them master the language. A great deal of the impact of mother tongue on the second language exists in translated abstracts. A study investigating the texts that were translated into Russian from 80 English abstracts demonstrated relevant mistakes that had an impact on the meanings of the writings of the contents (Cook, 2013). There were the impacts of negative transfers from mother tongue in non-professional translations. A number of points of views have been used to analyze the manner in which mother tongue interferes when writing Russian. Due to lack of knowledge regarding key differences between languages, learners have been involved in an erroneous use of words and sentences. These errors are significantly brought by the impact of mother tongue on the manner in which a person speaks.
A number of translations from L1 to L2 do not account for the meaning and context aspects. They ignore semantics and sociolinguists and focus on grammar related areas and elements that enable the creation of language forms. There is a conscious or unconscious dependence on mother tongue structures such as: discourse, tongue structures, and aspects associated with safety and comfort arising from their use (Gass, 2013). They ignore the vagueness and inaccuracies in the creation of imprecise meanings. If an abstract in the first language provides a proper language use, while the translation to L2 shows vagueness and errors, the resulting information becomes obscured and the audience to whom the message is intended does not fully understand it. This problem results due to pragmatism that effects the level of reality in the manner in which the translation occurs. Vocabulary is of importance because if there is no correct word in a sentence, communication breakdown is observed.
The procedure involved in learning the second language, its later application and the manner in which learners compensate for lacking the knowledge in construction of complex verb terms is greatly affected by mother tongue (Hutton, 2012). A number of errors occurring in the vocabulary used by a learner are caused by the influence of mother tongue. A number of inevitable errors occurring in the vocabulary used by a learner are caused by mapping one’s mother tongue to the second language vocabulary. Since all Russian learners are customarily reliant on their mother tongue, the amount of the first language they require is determined by their competence in linguistic situations (Khansir, 2012). While it can be conclusively argued that translation from L1 to L2 in the learner’s mind is important in improving language development, a number of learners usually misinterpret meanings of words during writing of texts in the second language due to the use of words that do not have similar meanings when compared with the original language. Errors in vocabulary have been made by both learners as well as professional authors who acquired Russian as a second language. During writing, there have been instances of high deficiencies due to the impacts of traditional language aspects and the resulting disciplines, which are not effective in improving translations (Kormos, 2014). MT has a diverse impact in effecting the manner in which the second language is acquired. Learners of a second language have strong linguistic and communication skills in their MT that provides them with the ability to acquire the second language in an effective manner. Their learning methods involve the transfer of forms and meanings during reading, speaking, or writing a second language. The manner in which they understand what is being said is by transferring the information from L2 to L1. This shows that the cultural, academic, and linguistic needs of a second language learner should not be disregarded and errors should be allowed to prevent the development of fear of learning a particular second language.
3.2. Impact of Mother Tongue in the use of Russian to Communicate in a Realistic Manner
Because some students are less likely to attain native-like proficiency in their second language, there is the need to develop more realistic goals during learning. When one has a basic communicative competence in a secondary language such as Russian, high capabilities exist for managing business and leisure activities in the future (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 2014). However, it is widely accepted that there exist some non-native speakers of the Russian language. Due to this situation, Russian has been regarded as an international language in the same manner as other languages. There is a parallel in academic consensus regarding the impacts of ethnocentricism where it is concluded that measurement of the group should not be done against the regulations of another. Due to this condition, it is argued that Russian grammar, methods of making pronunciation, selection of vocabulary by learners’ differences from the native language should not be used to imply the failure to become a native speaker. However, a review can be done on them as a sample a sample of a different variety of Russian (Littlewood & Yu, 2011). Consequently, during the teaching of ‘communication’, there should be less focus on minor variations to native speaker Russian that have no impact on the ability to understand the message. Some native Russian teachers would agree that an example of an obstacle to an improvement in the capacity to communicate Russian effectively is the tendency to focus on minor details and the need to become absolutely ‘correct.’ There is little doubt that some native teachers tell learners to put more emphasis on enhancing the understanding of what they mean, rather than being silent by being worried about the correctness of the forms. By insisting on the use of ‘Russian only,’ we will be sending students’ contradictory information. It will be like informing them that pronouncing Russian using their mother tongue perspectives is a mistake (McLaughlin, 2013). The fact that methodologists insist on the use of L2 does not imply that the L1 has not been practically used in classrooms. This is likely to have taken place through code-switching. This refers to a method used to alternate between languages to facilitate both communication and learning. The impact of L1 on L2 has been mainly observed among immigrant communities who do not speak Russian as their first language, thus have to learn it as a second language.
3.3. Impact of Mother tongue and Translation in Language Teaching
It is important to create a distinction between the teaching of translation as a skill and the implementation of mother tongue during teaching sessions. The importance of translation during learning of a language is mainly recommended by non-native teachers. Native teachers of Russian have the perception that learning a foreign language requires much exposure in classroom sessions and the use of L1 or translation is not necessary (Mitchell, Myles & Marsden, 2013). This is not the case because it has been observed that learners who are exposed to L1 develop competence in L2 compared with those who are restricted to use the only L2. Previously, some L2 pedagogy required that L1 should not be permitted in the classroom. Most communicative methods to language learning in the 1980s did not consider L1 to be of importance. However, there has been a recent change in attitude towards mother tongue and translation in class activities involving the provision of language competence to learners.
Translation is also called the fifth language skill in addition to other basic skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Translation is of great importance at an intermediate and advanced level of teaching and learning a particular language because it promotes communication and the ability of people of different languages to understand one another (Ball, 2010). There exist both positive and negative impacts of the use of mother tongue to learn a second language. It performs both social and cognitive functions in language development. When students work in groups, they do not have to speak Russian all the time. The use of mother tongue is associated with the identity of the learner. The impact of the use of mother tongue is that increased use of L1 may undermine interaction during learning of Russian (Bono, 2011). Despite the competence that a student may have in understanding the authentic reading and listening resources, a significant number focus on translating from L2 to L1 and vice versa. Due to this situation, teachers of L2 are made aware of the significance of translation in language sessions.
The use of mother tongue by second language learners has been associated with linguistic incapability of the students to activate the vocabulary for a particular task. Furthermore, translation is a natural activity during language learning, and code-switching during communication in different languages is considered to be naturally for developmental objectives. The level of the use of L1 by students may be caused by differences in the styles used by learners and their capabilities (Cook, 2013). The outcomes of studies into the important issue of the use of L1 in classrooms in different parts of the world shows that L1 is of value in achieving socio-cognitive objectives during learning. L1 is also used in the classroom to foster a positive, effective environment and to promote the use of a native language by the teacher to influence class dynamics, and create a sense of security and validate the experiences that learners go through. The actual importance of translation in English is the manner in which it can be exploited during comparison of vocabulary, word order, and other points are language use of the learner’s mother tongue. If students have the knowledge of the differences, language interference from the native language can be reduced. It is known that linguistic competence can be achieved consciously or unconsciously. Similarities and differences across languages can facilitate the positive transfer or negative transfer such as the occurrence of errors, over production, or misrepresentation. There should be more emphasis on the view that positive transfer is not always associated with the impact of native language (Gass, 2013). Some studies showed that both positive and negative transfers in the uses of L1 and L2 were important in the attainment of language development objectives and the complex systems of L2 learning. According to the data on the transfer between languages, there is a high probability that L2 learners will demonstrate a thinking aspect that applies L1 strategies, even in advanced levels. Also, translation in the L2 learning environment provides a way that illustrates the similarities and variations between L1 and L2 forms. It is important to achieve the translation objectives because it involves the use of authentic materials, it is interactive, and it is centered on learners while promoting autonomy.
With regards to the use of L1 and L2 in classroom environments, it s recommended that the experiences of students towards it should be studied. Studies conducted by Ball (2010), shows that when learners are restricted from using their mother tongue during learning, they develop the feeling that their identity is threatened (Hutton, 2012). Most students have also been of the view that mother tongue should be used in elaborating difficult concepts and during the introduction of new materials. Learners have been involved in a constant effort to check the meanings of terms during L2 learning in their native language by looking up the meanings in bilingual dictionaries or recommending that the teacher teaches them in L1. When native language is used in classrooms, students are made to think that words in L2 have an L1 correspondence, but this is usually not common (Khansir, 2012). Consequently, improving the student’s consciousness of the non-parallel characteristic of the second language to the first language is likely to enable comparative thinking among learners. The greatest concern is the method that can be used to reach a balance in the application of L2 during learning of L2. It is recommended that the factors that should be considered include: the previous experience of the student, the level of learning, the stage of course, and the individual lesson.
Conclusion
This paper has explained the topic of the role of mother tongue in second language acquisition. It examines the manner in which learners of a second language can use their mother tongues as the basis of achieving learning objectives such as reading, writing, speaking, and interacting in a second language by applying their mother tongue concepts. In the paper, the second language of focus was Russian. It is established that there exist few publications explaining the impact of mother tongue on L2 in the case where the second language is Russia. However, this study shows that mother tongue is important in providing the learners with confidence in communicating as well as enabling the elaboration of concepts which cannot be easily understood. It also enables the students to communicate in a more realistic manner during speaking, writing and listening to the information provided to them by their instructor. The use of L1 is also effective in improving the ability of learners to improve their cognitive abilities. Among the theories explaining the impact of L1 during learning of L2, the Contrastive Analysis theory explains that mother tongue is important in the acquisition of competence in the second language by enabling translation of the second language to the first language. There are some words that have similar sounds or orthographic characteristics when used in a secondary language as well as a primary language, thus promoting the understanding of the former. Lastly, this paper examines the impact of mother tongue in enabling teaching in classroom sessions. It is found that when children are less restricted to use mother tongue, they are more likely to cooperate with the instructors so that their ability to understand L2 is improved.
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